Daihatsu Charade 2009

Daihatsu Charade 2009 – This time around the 1.0-litre unit should be good for 68bhp, but most impressively it should average around 64mpg, with CO2 emissions of just 104g/km.

Prices and equipment levels have yet to be confirmed, but the cheapest model is likely to dip just under the £7000 barrier when it appears early this year.

In line with the previous model, even the basic trim should come with air-conditioning and remote central locking as standard. Safety equipment is certain to be a strong point, too. Because the high-specification Japanese versions already on sale are available with sever airbags – including one for the driver’s knees – and stability control.

Overall, the Daihatsu Charade 2009 is an affordable and reliable car for City runs and mini fans.

Renault Laguna Coupe 2009

The Laguna Coupe unveiling was accompanied by the introduction of the two new V6 engines. The gas powered 3.5 Litre V6 engine offers 240 HP (175 kW) whereas the 3.0 litre diesel engine generates 235 HP. The front wheel drive Laguna Coupe features the Active Drive Chasis with the four-wheel steering which may provide some interesting chasis dynamics.

MobiMB Media Browser 2009

MobiMB Latest New released can browse all types of phone’s folders using a simple explorer-style user interface and Drag & drop files, applications, media, ringtones and graphics into the phone to use as a ringtones/logos. It also manage your all type of photos, music and other media files You can easily Drag & drop Java MIDlets into the Games and Applications folders on your phone Uploads files without affecting their original quality Now select colour wallpaper, operator logo, startup logos from your PC Preview images and audio files on your PC (requires media player) Save your existing files to your PC

HTC TyTN 2

Though this Mobile Phones has everything you’d want from one, there are still a lot of gaps. The MS Office applications, QWERTY keypad and the side-sliding2.8” display give the feel of a handheld laptop. The camera has a 3 meg resolution but is noting to write home about. At first glance. It seems pretty stylised but as you use it, its bulkiness pinches you. The battery life is average and the performance gets slightly sluggish at times. The HTC TyTN II is an extremely impressive device, I’m an addict after just a few minutes. This really is the device that so many people have waiting for, no compromises, it includes the much needed keyboard, fast CPU and plenty of memory. The built in GPS is starting to become the norm and works well. The TyTN II may be on the heavy side but just think about all the technology crammed into such a small package!

Nokia 5030

Now a days people prefer listening to the radio FM especially when they are travelling. Keeping an eye on these needs Nokia has come out with its latestmobile phone Nokia 5030. It’s also known as the XpressRadio as its Nokia’s first mobile phone with an internal FM radio antenna. This device is ideal to listen to your favorite FM channels while on the move. The Nokia 5030 includes a one touch FM radio and channel selection buttons. There is nearly 10 hours of talk time, a powerful loud-speaker and comes in two colors, graphite and red. The Nokia 5030 will be available by the second quarter of 2009.

Nokia 5330 XpressMusic

The Nokia 5330 XpressMusic is ideal for music lovers as there are touch keys on display side which provide instant access to your music. It has a standard 3.5mm Jack for clarity of sound to any headphone and an improved battery life provide more than 26 hours of playback time. Nokia also offers exciting accessories like Nokia Bluetooth Stereo Headset-504 for high quality audio with powerful speakers. There is Nokia Stereo Headset WH-500 as well which is great for music and calls too. These accessories are ideal for traveling as both headsets are easy to fold and carry. The Nokia 5330 XpressMusic will be available in the third quarter of 2009.

Nokia 5730 XpressMusic

The Nokia 5730 XpressMusic allows users to quick accessibility of music and various interesting features. This is Nokia’s first music-enabledmobile phone that have a full QWERTY keyboard for fast messaging. The unique point of this music mobile phone is its Homescreen. With its improved contacts bar, it also provides easy access to your favorite features such as music, N-Gage, Facebook, Photos, Ovi Contacts, Maps, Messaging and a whole lot more. The Nokia 5730 XpressMusic will be available by the third-quarter of 2009

ASUS P565 mobile

The P565 is a stylish, leather-accented PDA phone which is capable of delivering graphics and system performance which is beyond anything else on the mobile phone market today. With Glyde technology, users can glide through resource-intensive tasks with easy and allow them to handle heavy multi-tasking well. Hence the ASUS P565 is an ideal phone for businesspeople who needs uncompromising performance and maximum speed from their productivity tools such as a PDA phone.The ASUS P565 also features a 2.8-touchscreen with 480×640 pixel resolution for a clear display when working on photos and spreadsheets. Since the ASUS P565 is a business-oriented phone it is but necessesary for it to have business-orietend software and applications. And it does actually have push mail, business card recognition and Microsoft Office Mobile as well as other useful applications including Anytime Launcher and Multi-Home which allows users to view calendards, times of local and visiting cities, weather reports, online news and many more - through a tap slide or flick of the user’s finger. Design-wise the ASUS P565 emits an air of exclusivity as well with with its battery lid which is lined with black synthetic leather which contrasts well with the form factor and design of the P565’s body consisting of high-gloss face. The complete rundown of the ASUS P565’s features would give as the following: HSDPA 3.6Mbps/UMTS 2100, EDGE/GPRS/GSM/900/1800/1900 Class 10 network support, Microsoft Windows Mobile 6.1 Professional for OS, 250-300 hrs standby time with 3G on and 200-250 hours with 2G on, talk time is at 3 hours with 3G and 4 hours with 2G,2.8-inch TFT VGA Touchscren at 480 x640, Marvell Tavorp 800 MHx processor, 256 MB Flash and 128 MB On-board memory,microsSD and microSDHC support, Wi-Fi, USB, Bluetooth+EDR, WAP browser, SiRF Star III with InstantFix GPS, various business applications including Word, Excel, Powerpoint and more, 3MP camera with auto focus, and video recording at 24fps.

Unlocking your phone

There are three ways through which you can unloack your nokia phone without knowing the security code.

Method 1. Try the default security code i.e 12345 for all nokia phones.

Method 2. Download the java software from here and install it on nokia java based symbian phone.

Method 3. You can also unlock your nokia phone directly over internet by “Enter your phone IMEI number” by typing the code in the brackets (*#06#) from this website .

So these are all the ways you can use to unlock all nokia symbian based phone and if you want to know how to unlock other company phones like samsung ,motorola etc.

Some Nokia phones tricks

*3370# Activate Enhanced Full Rate Codec (EFR) - Your phone uses the best sound quality but talk time is reduced my approx. 5%


#3370# Deactivate Enhanced Full Rate Codec (EFR)


*4720# Activate Half Rate Codec - Your phone uses a lower quality sound but you should gain approx 30% more Talk Time.

#4720# Deactivate Half Rate Codec.


*#0000# Displays your phones software version, 1st Line : Software Version, 2nd Line : Software Release Date, 3rd Line : Compression Type.


*#9999# Phones software version if *#0000# does not work.


*#06# For checking the International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI Number).


#pw+1234567890+1# Provider Lock Status. (use the "*" button to obtain the "p,w" and "+" symbols).


#pw+1234567890+2# Network Lock Status. (use the "*" button to obtain the "p,w" and "+" symbols).


#pw+1234567890+3# Country Lock Status. (use the "*" button to obtain the "p,w" and "+" symbols).


*#147# (vodafone) this lets you know who called you last.


*#1471# Last call (Only vodofone).


*#21# Allows you to check the number that "All Calls" are diverted to.


*#2640# Displays security code in use.

#pw+1234567890+3# SIM Card Lock Status. (use the "*" butoon to obtain the "p,w" and"+" symbols).

mx-16 iFS

Computer radio control system with twelve model memories, optimised by the use of top-level technology. Modern computer techniques and Graupner 2.4 GHz iFS technology ensure excellent operational reliability. Bi-directional communication between transmitter and receiver. Simplified programming technology for straightforward programming. The high-contrast graphic LCD screen provides an accurate display of battery voltage, modulation, model type, model name, model memory number, set-up data, throttle curves, collective pitch curves and model operating time.
Functions:
• Micro-computer radio control system exploiting the latest 2.4 GHz Graupner iFS Technology

• Bi-directional communication between transmitter and receiver

• No crystals, no channel setting procedures. Simultaneous use of up to 120 transmitters possible without interference

• Ultra-fast transmission rate for extreme response

• Rejects interference caused by electric motors, servos and electrical charge (metal-to-metal noise)

• Stub aerial, folding and removable

• Transmitter operation and programming based on the proven concepts of the mc-19 to mc-24

• High-contrast graphic LCD screen ensures perfect monitoring of set-up parameters, operational states, timers, transmitter battery voltage

• Eight control functions with simplified method of assigning transmitter controls to auxiliary functions

• Free assignment of all switches to switched functions: simply by operating the desired switch

• Twelve model memories, latest form of back-up system, requires no Lithium battery

• Four switches (of which one three-position switch, one momentary button, one analogue control, two digital controls installed as standard: freely programmable and therefore highly versatile

• Function encoder with rotary roller and three momentary buttons for simplified programming and accurate set-up

• Simple method of switching between stick modes 1 – 4

• Graphic servo display provides a fast, simple overview for checking servo travels

• Comprehensive fixed-wing and helicopter menus

• Servo travel adjustment for all servo channels, separately variable for each end-point

• Sub-trim for setting the neutral position of all servos

• Two-stage Expo / Dual-Rate system, individually variable, switchable in flight

• Mixer functions
Programmable Fail-Safe function »Hold« or »run to pre-set positions«, individually variable for each separate servo channel

• Stopwatch / count-down timer with Alarm function

• Model copy function for model memories

Computer audit techniques

In recent years, information technology (IT) used by firms, large and small, has become increasingly sophisticated and complex. The explosive growth in IT includes computer hardware, databases, networks, telecommunications, the Internet, extranets, electronic commerce, client/server architecture, data warehouses, integrated accounting systems software (such as enterprise resource planning software), automated reasoning systems and neural networks software. The advances in IT have significantly changed the methods firms employ to gather and report information. Thus, auditors encounter many IT environments that maintain data on electronic media rather than paper-based media. Auditors must determine how the firm uses IT systems to initiate, record, process and report transactions or other financial data. This understanding is necessary to plan the audit and to determine the nature, timing and extent of tests to be performed to gain a sufficient understanding of internal controls.

SAS No. 94 was recently issued to provide guidance to auditors concerning the proper assessment of internal control2 activities in IT systems. The auditing standard states that computer-assisted auditing techniques (CAATs) are needed to test automated controls in certain types of IT environments. This paper revisits auditing-through-the-computer techniques, which should become more widely used with the issuance of SAS No. 94, and focuses on the test data technique, which can be applied in almost any audit to test automated programmed controls. This technique is relatively easy to apply and does not require the auditor to have a high degree of computer expertise.

Internet Guidance

Parents need to be aware of what their children are doing on the computer. They would like to use an internet filtering software to protect their children from harmful people or websites that may be on the internet. They want to make sure their children are not exposed to pornography and other inappopriate material. Parents would also like to place a safeguard on their privacy and to also make sure that their children have a limited amount of time on the computer.
There are resources that can help protect your children from harmful material on the internet. There are developers that tube their lists and filters. There is a website called kidswatch-software.com. This website has a great way for you to effectivley manage your child's time on the computer with a time limit control. It monitors chat sessions, blocks website access, blocks web content, as well as settings, e-mail alerts, predator alerts and reports. This helps to control what your child sees when you cannot see it yourself.

Internet filters

Internet filters help restrict the childrens use of the internet. The filters are great to protect your children from seeing unexpected images. With the internet filter it blocks and secures the internet so that your childs time on the computer is an appropriate and safe time. Internet filters are extremely effective and easily help to keep the internet secure. There are many different types of internet filters to help make sure your computer is safe at all times.
Some different types of internet filters are CyberSieve 2.7.1, Chronager 3.3, iprotectyou 8.6.1, 1st clicks 1.2.2 and thats just to name a few. Another good one is Webwatcher, it manages a lot of parental controls on the computer. All these softwares help to protect what your children see on the computer, as well as what they are doing. This way, as a parent, you no longer have to worry about what your child may be exposed to on the computer when you are not around.

Internet blocking and monitoring

Monitoring your computer is an excellent way to know what is going on with your computer. You can check what the time and day the websites have been visited. This way you can always know what is going on with your computer and a good way to control the use of the computer. You can also block certain websites that you may find negative and unnecessary to use. This can pertain to maybe schools or certain jobs at work. Where they limit the use for unnecessary websites.
Internet tracking also helps you keep tabs on your computer. Perhaps if it was stolen and you wanted to track where is was, you could do this with the tracking device. There are many different computer softwares that monitor and block on the computer. One good example of a monitor and blocking software is Webwatchers. This software easily helps you monitor a computer and block unnecessary websites. Webwatchers is not the only software that can help you monitor and block on computers.

Internet Parental Control Software

Internet parental softwares are really important because it keep's your internet safe for your children. The software block out out inappropriate material from accidently popping up on the screen. This way you do not have to be over your child's shoulder the whole time they are the computer making sure nothing negative is popping up on the computer. Now you can relax and not continuously worry about the saftey of the internet.
Some softwares that you can use are Cyber patrol, Crawler Parental Control, Safe Eyes, Net Nanny and that is just to name a few. All these softwares have many features to block unwanted websites. It also filters to maintain the inappropriate websites. These softwares are important for the security of your children. Now your children can safely surf the internet without being exposed to inappropriate material.

Making your Passwords strong

A password is one of the most important parts of internet privacy. You want to create a password that is difficult for someone else to guess. To create a strong password it requires the password to be lengthy, random and complex combinations of numbers and letters. This way it makes it hard for people to detect your password.
Now think about something that is totally random and irrelevant to you, maybe it even does not make sense. You also do not want to make it only four to five characters long, you want to have length to it so ten characters would be more appropriate. The more you use letters and numbers the harder it is to detect. As well as creating it to be random will also make it harder for other people to figure out. An example of a strong password would be th3chuzzle4foofighterz, because it is lengthy, random and complex combonations of letters and numbers.

Precautions of wireless networking

When you are trying to connect to a wireless network there are some precautions that you should take. Some of those precautions are you would not want to disable or delete your WEP key, because this connects you to your home internet. You would only delete that if you were sure you would never need to use your home internet again. You also would like to run your firewall software that is on your computer. Along with those you would like to make sure your laptop is set to not automatically connect with open networks.
Also with those precautions you want to unplug the connection if you are not using it. If you have two or more antennas you can disconnect all but one if you can connect with using just one. This are all helpful precautions that you should consider while connecting to a wireless network. By using these your computer will safely connect to wireless networks.

Mobile Bulk Sms

Mass SMS sending application is software that enables users to send bulk text messages from computer system to any other mobile phone without using internet connectivity.
Mass SMS sending application is software that enables users to send bulk text messages from computer system to any other mobile phone without using internet connectivity. Bulk SMS sender tool transfers messages like business offers, latest updates, interview calls, inauguration invitations, business information, meetings information, seasonal greetings from PC with MS ActiveSync basedmobile phone. Corporate text messaging application sends text messages from PC using Windows Mobile Device Centre in just one click. PC messaging utility supports all mobile networks as national and international to send bulk SMS. Mobile text message broadcasting software enables users to sendtext messages in any language due to support of Unicode characters. Mass SMS sending application provides facility that user can import mobile numbers either from a text file from phone memory or by entering manually to send SMS from computer to mobile phones. Bulk SMS sender software provides graphical user interface (GUI) with inbuilt help option. Group text messaging tool works without any other software or technical support. Mobile text message broadcasting utility supports Windows ME, Vista, XP, 98, 2000, Server 2003, NT Operating system.Features:* Mass SMS sender software can send bulk messages over all national and international mobile networks.* Bulk SMS sender tool supports all type of Microsoft ActiveSync compatible smart phones and Pocket PCs.* Group text messaging utility provides graphical user interface with inbuilt help option.* PC messaging utility doesnOCOt require anyinternet connection to send SMS.* Mobile text message broadcasting utility can import contact number list from phonebook memory.

Driver Magician

Driver Magician is a tool to backup, restore, update and remove selected device drivers for Windows. It works by identifying all the hardware in your computer system and extracting the associated drivers from the hard disk. You can select to backup your device drivers wherever you want.

With Driver Magician, you can easily restore all the saved drivers when reinstall operating system. Driver Magician has a built in database to help you automatically update drivers form the internet improve system performance. It saves lots of time to find the correct drivers and mature drivers will obviously increase the performance of hardware. It also helps you to detect unknown devices in your system easily.

Driver Magician features:

* Back up device drivers of your computer in four modes.
* Restore device drivers from backup in one mouse click.
* Update device drivers of your PC to improve system performance and stability.
* Uninstall device drivers
* Live Update device identifier database and driver update database.
* Detect unknown devices.
* Back up more items such as My Documents and Registry.
* Restore more items from backup.
* Get detailed information of the hardware drivers.
* Clone all drivers to an auto-setup package (.EXE), so you can restore drivers without installing Driver Magician.

Double drive

Double Drive, a free computer device driver backup software that allow view all the installed driver on your system but also allows you to backup, restore, save and print all chosen drivers simply and reliably.
Meanwhile, Double Driver also analyzes your system and lists the most important driver details such as version, date, provider, etc and offers you the chance to update to the latest version. All drivers that are found can be backed up and restored at a later point in one go.

Double Driver Features:

* View installed drivers
* Backup installed drivers
* Restore backup drivers
* Save drivers details
* Print drivers details

So, this device backup software is very useful when if you don’t have the Driver CD that came with the computer or they are unavailable online. Plus more, Double Driver is freeware.

Device doctor Software

Device Doctor, free Windows Device Driver Manager software that scans computer driver status whether a new driver updates are available for your computer hardware devices. Besides scanning your computer hardware driver updates version, Device Doctor also allocates unidentified device drivers in Device Manager and find suitable driver to install.

Device Doctor is a good computer driver updates software because it provides drivers for every major computer hardware and device manufacturer. Meanwhile, Device Doctor has More than 3 terabytes (3,000 GB) of drivers currently in the database.
To use Device Doctor to search for driver updates is simple, all you need is click on ‘Begin Scan’ to run it. Once Device Doctor finish scanning your computer for driver updates, it will displays driver information and download links in a report at the end of the scan. Now click on Download Update button next to the device to get the latest driver installer for that particular device.

Device Doctor Key Features:

* Provides drivers for every major computer hardware and device manufacturer
* More than 3 terabytes (3,000 GB) of drivers currently in the database
* All drivers cached so downloads are quick and work every time
* Fast hardware scan takes seconds

Internet and Networking

Computers have been used to coordinate information between multiple locations since the 1950s. The U.S. military's SAGE system was the first large-scale example of such a system, which led to a number of special-purpose commercial systems like Sabre.

In the 1970s, computer engineers at research institutions throughout the United States began to link their computers together using telecommunications technology. This effort was funded by ARPA (now DARPA), and the computer network that it produced was called the ARPANET.The technologies that made the Arpanet possible spread and evolved.

In time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions and became known as the Internet. The emergence of networking involved a redefinition of the nature and boundaries of the computer. Computer operating systems and applications were modified to include the ability to define and access the resources of other computers on the network, such as peripheral devices, stored information, and the like, as extensions of the resources of an individual computer. Initially these facilities were available primarily to people working in high-tech environments, but in the 1990s the spread of applications like e-mail and the World Wide Web, combined with the development of cheap, fast networking technologies like Ethernet and ADSL saw computer networking become almost ubiquitous. In fact, the number of computers that are networked is growing phenomenally. A very large proportion of personal computers regularly connect to the Internet to communicate and receive information. "Wireless" networking, often utilizing mobile phone networks, has meant networking is becoming increasingly ubiquitous even in mobile computing environments.

Advantages of Internet

Following are the main advantages of Internet:

• Collection of information
• Free and Cheap
• E-Commerce
• Communication
• Entertainment and Games
• Research
• News
• Availability

Collection of Information:
One feature of internet is the collection of web sites, which contain information in the form of text and pictures. These websites provide a wide range of information on every topic of the world. When information is added to a website, it is immediately available for browsing by millions of Internet users. The World Wide Web is an ideal medium of information distribution because it takes away the time associated with publishing content and actually making it available to users.

Free and Cheap:
The information available on the Internet is usually free or costs very little. We can download different software like application programs, anti virus, different utility software free of cost. Content published on the World Wide Web is immediately available to a global audience of users, which makes it a very effective medium to publish information.

E-Commerce:
Internet has opened new doors for businesses, which is widely termed as E-Commerce or Electronic Commerce. Through Electronic Commerce business can introduce themselves to larger audience of the world through web sites and advertising. We can also do online trading of different commodities or shares through internet.

Communication:
Internet has revolutionized the way we communicate. It has been become very cheap and easy to communicate through it, Internet offers different facilities like E-mail, Video conferencing, Chatting etc for communication.

Entertainment and Games:
Internet has opened new arena for entertainment e.g. we can now see online movies, enjoy music, play games with different people in any part of the world. It covers different events, festivals and shows all over the world that we can enjoy simple on our computer scree.

Research:
Internet has enhanced the efforts that have been put in the research by allowing people to share their research with other people in different parts of the world.

News:
On Internet there are different news groups and websites from where we can get the latest news about the events happening in the world.

Availability:
The information on the internet is available 24 hours a day.

Disadvantages of Internet

Internet also has many advantages besides the numerous advantages such as:

• Security risks
• Viruses
• Computer/Internet Literacy
• Wastage of Time
• Accuracy and authenticity of information
• Difficult filteration

Security risks:
Even though, the technology has become relatively safer place but still it is under constant threat by the hackers who can access any personal information and can use it for their advantage like the misuse of a credit card.

Viruses:
There are number of viruses on the internet which damages not only the computer software but also effects the hardware increasing the maintenance cost. The viruses spread global via internet within some hours, particularly when one downloads programs.

Computer/Internet Literacy:
As most of the information available on internet is in English language, people around the world who do not know English cannot benefit themselves from this facility. There are still many literate people around who have no awareness of how to benefit from internet.

Wastage of Time:
Instead of acquiring information or knowledge people waste time in chatting and surfing.

Accuracy and authenticity of information:
As there is lot of information on the internet related to any topic, it has become very difficult to authenticate the accuracy of that information.

Difficult filtration:
Due to the increase of web sites providing different information on a particular topic, it has become very difficult to filter out the information one specifically requires.

Rando Scan Systems

An application program is input and stored in the system memory along with a graphics package. Graphics command in the application program are translated by the graphics package into a display file stored in the system memory. This display file is then accessed by the display processor to refresh the screen. This display processor cycles through each command in the display file program once during every refresh cycle. Sometimes the display processor in a random scan system is referred to as a display processing unit or a graphics controller.
Graphics patterns are drawn on a random scan system by directing the electron beam along the component lines of the picture. Lines are defined by the values for their coordinate end points, and these input coordinate values are converted to x and y deflection voltages. A scene is then drawn one line at a time by positioning the beam to fill in the line between specified endpoints.

Graphics Monitors and Workstations

Most graphics monitors today operate as a raster-scan displays. Graphics system range from small general purpose computer systems with graphics capabilities to sophisticated full color systems that are designed specifically for graphics applications. A typical screen resolution for personal computer system, such as the Apple Quadra.
Diagonal screen dimensions for general purpose personal computer systems can range from 12 to 21 inches, and allowable color selection range from 16 to over 32000. For Workstations specifically designed for graphics applications typical screen resolution is 1280 by 1024, with a screen diagonal of 16 inches or more. Graphics Workstations can be configured with from 8 to 24 bits per pixel with high screen resolutions, faster processors, and other options available in high end systems.
A multiscreen system called the Media Wall provides a large "wall-sized" display area. This system is designed for applications that require large area displays in brightly lighted environments such as at trade show, conventions, retail stores, museums or passenger terminals. Media Wall operates by splitting images into a number of sections and distributing the sections over an array of monitors or projectors using a graphics adapter and satellite control units. An array of up to 5 by 5 monitors, each with a resolution of 3200 by 2400 for wither static scenes or animations. Scenes can be displayed behind mullions or the mullions can be eliminated to display a continuous picture with no breaks between the various sections.

Presentation Graphics

Another major application area is presentation graphics, used to produce illustrations for reports or to generate 35-mm slides or transparencies for use with projectors. Presentation graphics is commonly used to summarize financial, statistical, mathematical, scientific, and economic data for research reports, managerial reports, consumer information bulletins, and other types of reports. Workstation devices and services bureaus exist for converting screen displays into 35-mm slides or overhead transparencies for use in presentations. Typical examples of presentation graphics are bar charts, line graphs, surface graphs, pie charts, and other displays showing relationships between multiple parameters.

A survey of Computer Graphics

The major use of computer graphics is in design processes, Particularly for engineering and architectural systems, but almost all products are now computer designed. Generally referred to as CAD, computer-aided design methods are now routinely used in the design of building, automobiles, aircraft, watercraft, space craft, computers, textiles, and many other products.
For some design applications, objects are first displayed in a wireframe outline form that shows the overall shape and internal features of objects. Wireframe display also show designers to quickly see the effects of interactive adjustments to design shapes.
Software packages for CAD applications typically provide the designer with a multi-window environment. The various displayed windows can show enlarged sections or different views of objects.
The shapes used in a design represent the different network or circuit components. Standard shapes for electrical, electronic and logic circuits are often supplied by the design package.
Animations are often used in CAD applications. Real-time animations using wireframe displays on a video monitor are useful for testing performance of a vehicle or system. When we do not display objects with rendered surfaces, the calculation for each segment of the animation can be performed quickly to produce a smooth real-time motion on the screen. Animations in virtually environment are used to determine how vehicle operators are affected by certain motions.

Computer Art

Computer graphics methods are widely used in both fine arts and commercial art applications. Artists use a variety of computer methods, including special purpose hardware, artist's paintbrush programs (such as Lumena), other paint packages (such as PixelPaint and SuperPaint), specially developed softwares, symbolic mathematics packages (such as Mathematica), CAD packages, desktop publishing software, and animation packages that provide facilities for designing object shapes and specifying object motions.
Fine artists use a variety of other computer technologies to produce images. For many applications of commercial art (and in motion pictures and other applications), photorealistic techniques are used to render images of a product. Animations are also used frequently in advertising, and television commercials are produced frame by frame, where each frame of the motion is rendered and saved as an image file. In each successive frame, the motion is simulated by moving object positions slightly from their positions in the previous frame. When all frames in the animation sequence have been rendered, the frames are transferred to film or stored in a video buffer for playback. Film animations require 24 frames for each second in the animation second sequence. If the animation is to be played back on a video monitor, 30 frames per second are required.
A common graphics method employed in many commercials is morphing, where one object is transformed into another. This method has been used in TV commercials to turn an oil can into an automobile engine, an automobile into a tiger, a puddle of water into a tire, and one person's face into another face.

Video Controller

A fixed area of the system memory is reserved for the frame buffer, and the video controller is given direct access to the frame-buffer memory.

Frame-buffer locations, and the corresponding screen positions, are referenced in Cartesian coordinates. For many graphics monitors, the coordinate origin is defined as the lower left screen corner. The screen surface is then represented as a first quadrant of the two dimensional system, with positive x values increasing to the right and positive y values increasing from bottom to the top. ( On some personal computers, the coordinate origin is referenced at the upper left corner of the screen, so the y values are inverted.) Scan lines are then labeled from y max at the top of the screen to 0 at the bottom. Along each scan line screen pixel positions are labeled from 0 to x max.
Two registers are used to store the coordinates of the screen pixels. Initially the x register is set to 0 and the y register is set to y max. The value stored in for the frame buffer for this pixel position is then retrieved and used to set the intensity of the CRT beam. Then the x register is incremented by 1, and the process repeated for the next pixel on the top scan line. After the last pixel on the top scan line has processed, the x register is reset to 0 and the y register is decremented by 1. Pixels along this scan line are then processed in turn, and the procedure for each successive scan line. After cycling through all pixels along the bottom scan line (y=o), the video controller resets the registers to the first pixel position on the top scan line and the refresh process starts over.
Since the screen must be refreshed at the rate of 60 frames per second, the simple procedure cannot be accommodated by typical RAM chips. The cycle time is too slow. To speed up pixel processing, video controller can retrieve multiple pixel values from the refresh buffer on each pass. The multiple pixel intensities are then stored in a separated register and used to control the CRT beam intensity for a group of adjacent pixels. When that group of pixels has been processed, the next block of pixel values is retrieved from the frame buffer.
A number of other operations can be performed by the video controller, besides the basic refreshing operations.

Raster Scan Systems

Interactive raster graphics systems typically employ several processing units. In addition to the central processing unit or CPU, a special purpose processor, called the video controller or display controller, is used to control the operations of the display device.
The frame buffer can be anywhere in the system memory, and the video controller accesses the frame buffer to refresh the screen. In addition to the video controller, more sophisticated raster systems employ other processors as co-processors and accelerators to implement various graphics operations

Difference Between Intel core 2 duo vs Intel dual core vs Intel Pentium D

Pentium D is nothing but 2 Prescott Processors side by side… runs very hot, not a good OverClocker…

Intel Core 2 Duo processors are next gen processors from Intel on 65 nm platform… developed from Ground up with new Architecture called Core… so they are whole new Processors just Jump like Pentium 2 to Pentium 3 or Pentium 4… Expect one Core 2 Duo Lowest End Processors like E4400/E4300 taking up and beating Intel Pentium D 3.8 GHz ones with ease runs damn cool and super over clocker…

Intel Dual Core Processors are just launched striped down version of Core 2 Duos.. there are 2 in Market for Desktop range, E2140 runs at 1.6 GHz with 1 MB L2 and 800 MHz FSB and E2160 with 1.8 GHz with same specs of E2140…. these are not Pentium D rather they are same batch like Core 2 Duo based on the new Core Technology…. they perform same like Core 2 Duos but they were launched with a very low price to counter the market of super low cost but high performer AMD X2 range line up to AMD X2 4000….

Core 2 Dual

The Core 2 brand was introduced on July 27, 2006,comprising the Solo (single-core), Duo (dual-core), Quad (quad-core), and in 2007, the Extreme (dual- or quad-core CPUs for enthusiasts) version. Intel Core 2 processors with vPro technology include the dual-core and quad-core branches.
Core 2 is a brand encompassing a range of Intel's consumer 64-bit x86-64 single-, dual-, and quad-core CPUs based on the Intel Core microarchitecture. The single- and dual-core models are single-die, whereas the quad-core models comprise two dies, each containing two cores, packaged in a multi-chip module.The introduction of Core 2 relegated the Pentium brand to the mid-range market, and reunified laptop and desktop CPU lines, which previously had been divided into the Pentium 4, Pentium D, and Pentium M brands.

The Core microarchitecture returned to lower clock rates and improved the usage of both available clock cycles and power when compared with the preceding NetBurst microarchitectue of the Pentium 4/D-branded CPUs. The Core microarchitecture provides more efficient decoding stages, execution units, caches, and buses, reducing the power consumption of Core 2-branded CPUs while increasing their processing capacity. Intel's CPUs have varied wildly in power consumption according to clock rate, architecture, and semiconductor process, shown in the CPU power dissipation tables.

Core-based processors do not have Hyper-Threading Technology found in Pentium 4 processors. This is because the Core microarchitecture is a descendant of the P6 microarchitecture used by Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, and Pentium M. Core 2 also lacks an L3 Cache found in the Gallatin core of the Pentium 4 Extreme Edition, although an L3 Cache is present in high-end versions of Core-based Xeons and Hyper-Threading is present on select Atom processors. Both an L3 cache and Hyper-threading is present in current Nehalem and future Westmere processors.

Computer Software

Computer software has become a deriving force. It is the engine that drives business decision making. It serves as the basic for modern scientific investigation and engineering power solving. It is a key factor that differentiates modern products and services. It is embedded in systems of all kinds: transportation, medical, telecommunications, military, Industrial processes, entertainment, office products,.....the list is almost endless. Software is virtually inescapable in a modern world. And as we move into the twenty first century, it will become the driver for new advances in everything from elementary education to genetic engineering.

What is it?
Computer software is the product that software engineers design and build. It encompasses programs that execute within a computer of any size and architecture, documents that encompass hard copy and virtual forms and data that combine numbers and text but also include representations of pictorial, video and audio information.

Who does it?
Software Engineers build it, and virtually everyone in the industrialized world uses it either directly or indirectly.

Why is it important?
Because it affects nearly every aspect of our lives and has become pervasive in our commerce, our culture, and our everyday activities.

What are the Steps?
You build computer software like you build any successful product, by applying a process that leads to a high quality result that meets the needs of the people who will use the product. You apply a software engineering approach.

What is the work product?
From the point of view of a software engineer, the work product is the program, documents, and data that are computer software. But from the user's viewpoint, the work product is the resultant information that somehow makes the user's world better.

Software Applications

Software may be applied in any situation for which a prespecified set of procedural steps (i.e, an algorithm) has been defined. Information content and determinacy are important factors in determining the nature of a software application. Content refers to the meaning and form of incoming and outgoing information.
Information determinacy refers to the predictability of the order and timing of information. An engineering analysis program accepts data that have a predefined order, executes the analysis algorithm(s) without interruption and produces resultant data in report or graphical format. Such applications are determinate. A multiuser operating system, on the other hand, accepts input that have varied content and arbitrary timing, executes algorithms that can be interrupted by external conditions, and produces output that varies as a function of environment and time. Applications with these characteristics are indeterminate.
The following software areas indicate the breadth of potential applications.
System Software:
System software is a collection of programs written to service other programs. Some system software (e.g., compilers, editors and file management utilities) process complex, but determinate, information structures. Other systems applications (e.g., operating system components, drivers, telecommunications processors) process largely indeterminate data. In either case, the system software area is characterized by heavy interaction with complier hardware; heavy usage by multiple users, concurrent operation that requires scheduling, resource sharing and sophisticated process management; complex data structures; and multiple external interfaces.

Real-time Software:
Software that monitors/analyzes/controls real-world events as they occur is called real time. Elements of real-time software include a data gathering component that collects and formats information from an external environment, an analysis component that transforms information as required by the application.

Business Software:
Business information processing is the largest single software application area. Discrete "systems" (e.g., payroll, accounts receivable/payable, inventory) have evolved into Management Information System (MIS) software that accesses one or more large databases containing business information. Applications in this area restructures existing data in a way that facilitates business operations or management decision making.

Engineering and Scientific Software:
Engineering ans scientific software have been characterized by "number crunching" algorithms. Application ranges from astronomy to volcanology, from automotive stress analysis to space shuttle orbital dynamics, and from molecular biology to automated manufacturing.

Embedded Software:
Intelligent products have become commonplace in nearly every consumer and industrial market. Embedded software resides in Read Only Memory and is used to control products and systems for the consumer and industrial markets. Embedded software can perform very limited and esoteric functions (e.g., keypad control for a microwave oven) or produce significant function and control capability.

Personal Computer Software:
The personal computer software market has burgeoned over the past two decades. Word Processing, Spread sheets, Computer graphics, multimedia, entertainment, database management, personal and business financial applications, external network and database access are only a few of hundreds of applications.

Web-based Software:
The web page retrieved by browser are software that incorporates executable instructions (e.g., CGI, HTML, Perl or Java) and data (e.g., hypertext and a variety of visual and audio formats). In essence, the network becomes a massive computer providing an almost unlimited software resource that can be accessed by anyone with a modem.

Artificial intelligence software:
Artificial intelligence software makes use of nonnumerical algorithms to solve complex problems that are not amenable to computation or straightforward analysis. Expert systems, also called Knowledge-based systems, pattern recognition (image and voice), artificial neural networks. theorem proving, and game playing are representative of applications within this category.

Software Myths

Many causes of a software affliction can be traced to a mythology that arose during the early history of software development. Unlike ancient myths than often provide human lessons well worth heeding, software myths propagated misinformation and confusion. Software myths had a number of attributes that made them insidious; for instance, they appeared to be reasonable statements of fact (sometimes containing elements of truth), they has an intuitive feel, and they were often promulgated by experienced practitioners who "knew the score."
Today, most knowledgeable professionals recognize myths for what they are misleading attitudes that have caused serious problems for managers and technical people alike. However, old attitudes and habits are difficult to modify, and remnants of software myths are still believed.

Software Engineering

Definition:
"Software engineering is the application of a systematic, disciplined, quantifiable approach to the development, operation, and maintenance of software, and the study of these approaches; that is, the application of engineering to software."

Introduction:
The term software engineering first appeared in the 1968 NATO Software Engineering Conference and was meant to provoke thought regarding the current "software crisis" at the time. Since then, it has continued as a profession and field of study dedicated to creating software that is of higher quality, more affordable, maintainable, and quicker to build. Since the field is still relatively young compared to its sister fields of engineering, there is still much debate around what software engineering actually is, and if it conforms to the classical definition of engineering. It has grown organically out of the limitations of viewing software as just programming. Software development is a term sometimes preferred by practitioners in the industry who view software engineering as too heavy-handed and constrictive to the malleable process of creating software. Although software engineering is a young profession, the field's future looks bright as Money Magazine and Salary.com rated software engineering as the best job in America in 2000.

Terms for the Web tools

The following are a few terms that you will see frequently while using Internet:

Browser:
A software program that requests, interprets and presents World Wide Web documents. Frequently used browsers include Internet Explorer, Netscape Communicator, Lynx, Fire Fox, Safari and Mosaic.

Client:
In addition to being a computer, a client also can be a software program that requests and acquires information from computers that store World Wide Web documents and files. World Wide Web browsers are also known as clients.

Hotlist:
An option available in most World Wide Web browsers that maintain a list of frequently accessed home pages. A hotlist also refers to a list of home pages related to a particular subject that is published on an organization's home page.

The "Guts" of the Web

Now that you know about the surface elements of the Web, what goes on beneath the surface? What are some of the elements that actually created the foundation for what you see on the Web? Read on to find out.

HTTP:
Hypertext Transfer Protocol, Protocol for accessing World Wide Web documents. It is the Primary access methods for interacting with the internet.

HTML:
Hypertext Markup Language. HTML is the coding language for the World Wide Web that informs browsers how to display a document's text, links, graphics, and other media. This language forms the foundation for all Web pages.

Webmaster:
The individual responsible for maintaining and updating the content of a World Wide Web document. Webmasters are the creative forces behind the World Wide Web.

Domain name:
The portion of the Internet address (URL) following the double forward slashes (//) that identifies an internet host site. Domain names are usually two or more terms separated by periods. Some examples are www.ucp.edu.pk and www.microsoft.com

Uniform Resource Locator (URL):
A URL serves as identification for all World Wide Web documents. It is an Internet address for locating Internet elements, such as server sites, documents, files, newsgroups and so on.

Internet Service Provider (ISP):
Internet Service Provider is a company that sells computer access to the internet. A user buys a subscription from an Internet Service Provider, which gives the user an identifying user name and Password and a Phone number. With his or her computer and modem, the user calls, connects to, and logs on to the service provider's computer. ISP also supports high speed dialup access, such as Digital Subscriber Line (DSL), cable modem, or a satellite, if available in the area

Features of Windows XP

Windows XP is one of the widely used operating system in the world. It provides the facility to develop and deploy servers more quickly with the help of wizards. In Windows XP environment, computers on the network can be configured more swiftly. It is very easy for the system administrator to manage this kind of network. It provides the centralized management services to manage the network. The main features of Windows XP are as follows:

• Latest technology: Windows XP provides latest hardware technologies and peripheral support including multimedia devices, wireless devices, smart cards and many more.
• Hardware technology: It provides the services to work with the printers, storage devices and other hardware devices with latest networking and hardware technologies.
• File protection system: Windows file protection, protects system files from being overwritten by application installation.
• Device drivers installation: It ensures that non-certified drivers cannot be installed, which protects your system from malfunctioning.
• Internet technologies: The internet technologies in Windows XP, let computers to connect with each other, share information, without comprising confidential data.
• Network: It provides services to build and manage internal networks and expand operations onto internet.
• HTML and XML: Windows XP has strong development platform support for Dynamic HTML behaviors and XML.
• Stand By: Stand By turns off your computer and monitor after a pre-determined time, while retaining your desktop on disk.
• Offline State: Offline viewing makes entire Web pages with graphic available for viewing offline. Synchronization Manager allows you to compare and update your offline files and folder with those on network.
• Smart Battery: Smart battery gives you a more accurate view of your's battery life, enabling you to reduce power to specific functions to extend your battery's power.
• Graphical Wizard: Setup Manager provides a graphical wizard that guides administrators in designing installation applications.
• Speed: Windows XP offers 50 percent faster performance that Windows 95 or Windows 98.
• Dual Processing Machine: Windows XP can support up to 4 GB of RAM and two symmetric multiprocessors.

USB

USB (Universal Serial Bus) is a way of setting up communication between a computer and peripheral devices. USB is intended to replace many varieties of serial and parallel ports. USB can connect computer peripherals such as mice, keyboards, PDAs, gamepads and joysticks, scanners, digital cameras, printers, personal media players, flash drives, and external hard drives. For many of those devices, USB has become the standard connection method. USB was designed for personal computers, but it has become commonplace on other devices such as PDAs and video game consoles, and as a power cord between a device and an AC adapter plugged into a wall plug for charging. As of 2008[update], there are about 2 billion USB devices sold per year, and approximately 6 billion total sold to date.

The design of USB is standardized by the USB Implementers Forum (USB-IF), an industry standards body incorporating leading companies from the computer and electronics industries. Notable members have included Agere, Apple Inc., Hewlett-Packard, Intel, Microsoft and NEC.

Services of internet

The Internet Provides a number of services such as:

• World Wide Web (WWW)
• Electronic Mail (E-mail)
• Newsgroup
• Chatting
• FTP
• Electronic Commerce (E-Commerce)

World Wide Web (WWW):
The World Wide Web is the fastest growing part of the internet, as well as the most exciting. This is a graphical environment that allows the text and pictures to be displayed on your screen via software called Web Browser.

Electronic Mail (E-Mail:
This service is available over the internet enabling you to send and receive messages on global basis. People use email for anything for which they might use paper mail, faxes, special delivery of documents, or the telephone. You can communicate globally for the cost of local phone call. The reason for this is that you connect to the Internet via your ISP by dialing a local diaplup number.

News Groups:
News groups are included in the internet. They can be accessed with the help of you Internet Browser and enable you to take part in discussion of internet with like-minded people from around the world.

Chatting:
People are talking to other people all over the world. They enter chat rooms with several other people or special someone. They send messages to each other. They are using different services for chatting like MSN Messenger, AOL America Online, ICQ, MIRC, and Yahoo Messenger and many others.

FTP:
FTP ( File Transfer Protocol ) is a simple way to transfer files to and from the internet. Often this is done using your browser. You may obtain FTP programs; download books, pictures, movies, articles and software.

Electronic Commerce (E-Commerce):
This is a modern way for buying and selling goods over the internet in secure manner. It seems that everybody is doing it. Credit cards are used for payment. Many services are available for handling credit cards all over the internet with security.

Internet

Internet
Definition:
Internet is a network made up of lots of interconnected networks. It is a wide area network. It is actually comprised of millions of independent networks at academic institutions, military installations, government agencies, commercial enterprises, internet support companies, and just about every other type of organization.

Explanation:
Most of the internet users use dialup connections to connect to internet. Dialup connection is established using a modem to dialup the number of the remote of the remote computer of Internet Service Provider (ISP).
Once the internet connection is established, now user can explore the wonders of internet. To do so user need an Internet Browser (e.g Internet explorer, Firefox or Netscape communicator)
Most of the information on the internet is accessed and viewed in the workspace of Internet Browser. User just has to type the Internet address of the desired site and that particular site will be opened in the browser window.
User can also accomplish a number of research tasks using the internet facility including:

• Browsing worldwide discussion groups on thousand of topics.
• Using electronic mail to get information from experts in response to your question.
• Connecting to libraries all over the world to locate materials in their collections, which may be borrowed through your library via interlibrary loan.
• Accessing information from local, state and federal government agencies.
• Accessing online, electronic journals and newspapers to find the latest news, reports and articles.

Star Topology

What is Star Topology?

This is a computer network that involves a centralized host computer connected to a number of smaller computer systems with a central device called Hub or Switch. The smaller computer systems communicate with one another through this central device and usually shares the host computer's database. Any computer can communicate with any other computer in the network.
Twisted pair cable and RJ-45 connector is used in this topology.
Following are the some advantages and disadvantages of Star Topology.

Advantages:

• If any terminal becomes defective, it does not affect any other terminal of this network.
• The central computer controls the flow of the data.
• There is no chance of data collision in Star Topology.

Disadvantages:

• This type of topology is expensive because each terminal is connected with a separate cable.
• If the central device is shutdown, the whole network will suffer.

Ring Topology

What is Ring Topology?

In ring topology every device has two neighbors. All messages travel through a ring in the same direction. A failure in any cable system or device breaks the loop and can take down the entire network.
Token passing scheme is used for this topology. Only one token is available on the network. When a node wants to transmit data it will capture the token and then transmit data. In this way only one device can transmit data at a time. After successfully transmitting, token is released for other nodes. Thus no collision occurs but data transfer rate is very slow in this scheme.
Twisted pair cable and RJ-45 connector is used in this topology. Here are some advantages and disadvantages of this kind of network topology.

Advantages:

• If the central computer fails, any other computer can be made central computer.
• There are no chances of data collision in this type of topology.

Disadvantages:

• If one of the terminals becomes defective, it effects the whole network.
• It is difficult to troubleshoot the ring topology.

Bus Topology

What is Bus Topology?

This is a computer network that permits the connection of terminals, peripheral devices and microcomputers along an open ended central cable which is called bus. The term bus is used because people on a bus can get off at any stop along the route. This cable is used as a shared medium. Coaxial cable and BNC (British Naval Connector) is used in this topology.
A device wanting to communicate with another device on the network will broadcast message on the network and all devices can see the message but only that device can receive message whose address is with the message, Here are some advantages and disadvantages of this kind of topology.

Advantages:

• It is easy to understand
• Bus topology is simple and it is easy to connect additional terminals to this kind of network.
• This is best topology for connecting the devices, which are close to one another.

Disadvantages:

• If there is any error in the network, it cannot easily be detected.
• Chances of data collision are very high due to shared medium of communication.

Wide Area Network

A wide area network is a digital communication system, which interconnects different sites, computer installation and user terminals and may also enable LANs to communicate with each other. This type of communication network may be developed to operate nationwide or worldwide. In a WAN the transmission medium used are normally public systems such as telephone lines, microwave and satellite links.
In WAN different LANs and other types of network are connected together, so that users and computers in one location can communicate with users and computers in other locations.
Many WANs are built for one particular organization and are private. Others, built by internet service providers, provide connections from an organization's LANto the internet.
WANs are often built using leased lines. At each end of the leased line, a router connects to the LAN on one side and a hub within the WAN on the other. Leased lines can be very expensive. Instead of using lines, WANs can also be built using less costly circuit switching public systems. Network protocols including TCP/IP deliver transport and addressing functions. X.25 was an important early WAN protocol, and is often considered to be the "grandfather" of Frame Relay as many of the underlying protocols and functions of X.25 are still in use today by frame relay.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network that interconnects users with a computer resources in a geographical area or region larger than that covered by a large local area network (LAN) but smaller that the area covered by a wide area network (WAN). The term is applied to the interconnection of networks in a city into a single larger network ( which may then also offer efficient connection to a wide area network). It is also used to mean the interconnection of several local area networks by bridging them with backbone lines.
The latter usage is also sometimes referred to as a computer network.
Examples of metropolitan area networks of various sizes can be found in the metropolitan areas of Lahore, Karachi and Islamabad. Large universities also sometimes use the term to describe their networks. A recent trend is the installation of wireless MANs

Local area network

A local area network is a digital communication system capable of interconnecting a large number of computers, terminals and other peripheral devices within a limited geographical area. LANs normally operate within a limited area such as an office, building or a campus is owned by using organization. The organization of a LAN can be a star, a ring or simply devices attached along a length of cable. In LAN transmission, channels generally use coaxial or fiber optic cables and special interface units rather than telephone lines and modems. Thus the transmission speed is very high. The attached computers may be of different types and performing a variety of functions such as data processing, word processing and electronic mail.
The two main purposes of the local area network are to link computers within an organization or campus so that they may share expensive peripheral devices, for example high-speed printers or magnetic disks holding the database, and to allow these computers to communicate with each other.

Uses of Microcomputer

• These are used for business applications.
• Microcomputers are used for engineering designs.
• People use microcomputers for entertainment.
• People also use these computers to watch movies.
• Microcomputer can also be used to play music.
• Designers use these computers to make designs more conveniently.
• Microcomputers are also used for communication.
• To preserve documents in the form of soft copy microcomputers are used.

Types of computer

Supercomputer and Mainframe:
Supercomputer is a broad term for one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations (number crunching). For example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting). Perhaps the best known supercomputer manufacturer is Cray Research.

Mainframe was a term originally referring to the cabinet containing the central processor unit or "main frame" of a room-filling Stone Age batch machine. After the emergence of smaller "minicomputer" designs in the early 1970s, the traditional big iron machines were described as "mainframe computers" and eventually just as mainframes. Nowadays a Mainframe is a very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users simultaneously. The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power to execute many programs concurrently. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because they support more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single program faster than a mainframe. The distinction between small mainframes and minicomputers is vague, depending really on how the manufacturer wants to market its machines.

Minicomputer:
It is a midsize computer. In the past decade, the distinction between large minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between small minicomputers and workstations. But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting from up to 200 users simultaneously.

Workstation:
It is a type of computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing, software development, and other types of applications that require a moderate amount of computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities. Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, at large amount of RAM, built-in network support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have a mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called a diskless workstation, comes without a disk drive. The most common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like personal computers, most workstations are single-user computers. However, workstations are typically linked together to form a local-area network, although they can also be used as stand-alone systems.

Personal computer:
It can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. In price, personal computers range anywhere from a few hundred pounds to over five thousand pounds. All are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database management applications. At home, the most popular use for personal computers is for playing games and recently for surfing the Internet.

Personal computers first appeared in the late 1970s. One of the first and most popular personal computers was the Apple II, introduced in 1977 by Apple Computer. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, new models and competing operating systems seemed to appear daily. Then, in 1981, IBM entered the fray with its first personal computer, known as the IBM PC. The IBM PC quickly became the personal computer of choice, and most other personal computer manufacturers fell by the wayside. P.C. is short for personal computer or IBM PC. One of the few companies to survive IBM's onslaught was Apple Computer, which remains a major player in the personal computer marketplace. Other companies adjusted to IBM's dominance by building IBM clones, computers that were internally almost the same as the IBM PC, but that cost less. Because IBM clones used the same microprocessors as IBM PCs, they were capable of running the same software. Over the years, IBM has lost much of its influence in directing the evolution of PCs. Therefore after the release of the first PC by IBM the term PC increasingly came to mean IBM or IBM-compatible personal computers, to the exclusion of other types of personal computers, such as Macintoshes. In recent years, the term PC has become more and more difficult to pin down. In general, though, it applies to any personal computer based on an Intel microprocessor, or on an Intel-compatible microprocessor. For nearly every other component, including the operating system, there are several options, all of which fall under the rubric of PC

Today, the world of personal computers is basically divided between Apple Macintoshes and PCs. The principal characteristics of personal computers are that they are single-user systems and are based on microprocessors. However, although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, it is common to link them together to form a network. In terms of power, there is great variety. At the high end, the distinction between personal computers and workstations has faded. High-end models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics capability as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and DEC.

III, Personal Computer Types:
Actual personal computers can be generally classified by size and chassis / case. The chassis or case is the metal frame that serves as the structural support for electronic components. Every computer system requires at least one chassis to house the circuit boards and wiring. The chassis also contains slots for expansion boards. If you want to insert more boards than there are slots, you will need an expansion chassis, which provides additional slots. There are two basic flavors of chassis designs–desktop models and tower models–but there are many variations on these two basic types. Then come the portable computers that are computers small enough to carry. Portable computers include notebook and subnotebook computers, hand-held computers, palmtops, and PDAs.

Tower model:
The term refers to a computer in which the power supply, motherboard, and mass storage devices are stacked on top of each other in a cabinet. This is in contrast to desktop models, in which these components are housed in a more compact box. The main advantage of tower models is that there are fewer space constraints, which makes installation of additional storage devices easier.

Desktop model:
A computer designed to fit comfortably on top of a desk, typically with the monitor sitting on top of the computer. Desktop model computers are broad and low, whereas tower model computers are narrow and tall. Because of their shape, desktop model computers are generally limited to three internal mass storage devices. Desktop models designed to be very small are sometimes referred to as slimline models.

Notebook computer:
An extremely lightweight personal computer. Notebook computers typically weigh less than 6 pounds and are small enough to fit easily in a briefcase. Aside from size, the principal difference between a notebook computer and a personal computer is the display screen. Notebook computers use a variety of techniques, known as flat-panel technologies, to produce a lightweight and non-bulky display screen. The quality of notebook display screens varies considerably. In terms of computing power, modern notebook computers are nearly equivalent to personal computers. They have the same CPUs, memory capacity, and disk drives. However, all this power in a small package is expensive. Notebook computers cost about twice as much as equivalent regular-sized computers. Notebook computers come with battery packs that enable you to run them without plugging them in. However, the batteries need to be recharged every few hours.

Laptop computer:
A small, portable computer -- small enough that it can sit on your lap. Nowadays, laptop computers are more frequently called notebook computers.

Subnotebook computer:
A portable computer that is slightly lighter and smaller than a full-sized notebook computer. Typically, subnotebook computers have a smaller keyboard and screen, but are otherwise equivalent to notebook computers.

Hand-held computer:
A portable computer that is small enough to be held in one’s hand. Although extremely convenient to carry, handheld computers have not replaced notebook computers because of their small keyboards and screens. The most popular hand-held computers are those that are specifically designed to provide PIM (personal information manager) functions, such as a calendar and address book. Some manufacturers are trying to solve the small keyboard problem by replacing the keyboard with an electronic pen. However, these pen-based devices rely on handwriting recognition technologies, which are still in their infancy. Hand-held computers are also called PDAs, palmtops and pocket computers.

Palmtop:
A small computer that literally fits in your palm. Compared to full-size computers, palmtops are severely limited, but they are practical for certain functions such as phone books and calendars. Palmtops that use a pen rather than a keyboard for input are often called hand-held computers or PDAs. Because of their small size, most palmtop computers do not include disk drives. However, many contain PCMCIA slots in which you can insert disk drives, modems, memory, and other devices. Palmtops are also called PDAs, hand-held computers and pocket computers.

PDA:
Short for personal digital assistant, a handheld device that combines computing, telephone/fax, and networking features. A typical PDA can function as a cellular phone, fax sender, and personal organizer. Unlike portable computers, most PDAs are pen-based, using a stylus rather than a keyboard for input. This means that they also incorporate handwriting recognition features. Some PDAs can also react to voice input by using voice recognition technologies. The field of PDA was pioneered by Apple Computer, which introduced the Newton MessagePad in 1993. Shortly thereafter, several other manufacturers offered similar products. To date, PDAs have had only modest success in the marketplace, due to their high price tags and limited applications. However, many experts believe that PDAs will eventually become common gadgets.